Molecular characterization and function of tenomodulin, a marker of tendons and ligaments that integrate musculoskeletal components

Tendons and ligaments are dense fibrous bands of connective tissue that integrate musculoskeletal components in vertebrates. Tendons connect skeletal muscles to the bone and function as mechanical force transmitters, whereas ligaments bind adjacent bones together to stabilize joints and restrict unwanted joint movement. Fibroblasts residing in tendons and ligaments are called tenocytes and ligamentocytes, respectively. Tenomodulin (Tnmd) is a type II transmembrane glycoprotein that is expressed at high levels in tenocytes and ligamentocytes, and is also present in periodontal ligament cells and tendon stem/progenitor cells. Tnmd is related to chondromodulin-1 (Chm1), a cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitor, and both Tnmd and Chm1 are expressed in the CD31- avascular mesenchyme. The conserved C-terminal hydrophobic domain of these proteins, which is characterized by the eight Cys residues to form four disulfide bonds, may have an anti-angiogenic function. This review highlights the molecular characterization and function of Tnmd, a specific marker of tendons and ligaments.